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- the not-very-distant past
- modern times, excluding recent decades
- (in the context of Chinese history) the period from the Opium Wars until the May 4th Movement (mid-19th century to 1919)
- capitalist times (pre-1949)
- modern history (for China, from the Opium Wars until the fall of the Qing Dynasty, i.e. mid-19th to early 20th century)
